The Effects of Agonists

The Effects of Agonists Introduction The investigation involved experiments to determine the pharmacological properties of a range of reference drugs, and one unknown drug. This information can be used to help our understanding of how drugs act upon different receptor sites, and how they interact with other drugs. The effects of agonists were investigated, along with how they are affected by antagonists. From investigating the reproducibility, mimicry and effects of antagonism on the reference drugs and the unknown drug, A3, it was concluded that the unknown drug was Carbachol. Cholinergic Drugs Carbachol was one of three cholinergic drugs under investigation. The other two being acetylcholine and methacholine. Acetylcholine is the endogenous neurotransmitter at cholinergic synapses and neuroeffector junctions in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Its actions are mediated through nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors [1]. These muscarinic receptors are blocked by atropine, an anticholinergic drug. Atropine prevents the effects of acetylcholine by blocking its binding to muscarinic cholinergic receptors [1]. This could be seen in the results from the investigation as atropine caused an increase in the ED50 value of acetylcholine. There are certain pharmacological properties that are required from a parasympathomimetic drug that make it suitable for therapeutic treatment. It should have a high affinity for cholinergic receptors, enabling a response to be brought about by the tissue. The drug should also be resistant to cholinesterase; therefore it will not be easily broken down inside the body. This prolongs the activity of the drug, meaning fewer doses of the drug have to be administered to or by the patient. This will therefore result in increased patient compliance as it is more convenient for them to have to take fewer doses. Clinical, therapeutic uses of acetylcholine are restricted due to its lack of selectivity for cholinergic receptors, and its rapid degradation by cholinesterases. This degradation, or break down of acetylcholine was observed in the results of the investigation, where it could be seen that acetylcholine had been digested by acetylcholinesterase present in horse blood, which acetylcholine had been incubated with. Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine to choline and an acetate group. This breakdown of acetylcholine prevented a response in the guinea pig ileum. Although the therapeutic uses of acetylcholine are restricted, there are clinical applications in blocking acetylcholine through the use of antagonists, and mimicking acetylcholine, by using agonists that act upon the same receptors. Such agonists include methacholine, a synthetic choline ester, which is also a muscarinic receptor agonist. It differs from acetylcholine as it has an extra methyl group on the beta carbon of acetylcholine. This results in it being more selective at muscarinic receptors and less selective at nicotinic receptors. It is also less susceptible to acetylcholinesterase than acetylcholine so it has a greater duration of action in the body. Muscarinic agonists stimulate bronchial smooth muscle in the lungs causing bronchoconstriction. Methacholine can therefore be administered for the diagnosis of bronchial hyperreactivity and asthmatic conditions, in what is known as a bronchial challenge test. This involves the breathing in of nebulised methacholine which will cause the patients airways to narrow. Those who are suffering from bronchial hyperreactivity or an asthmatic condition will react to lower doses of methacholine, allowing the diagnosis of the condition. Carbachol is also a choline ester derivative of Acetylcholine. It differs in that it substitutes a carbamoyl group for the terminal methyl group of acetylcholine. This substitution makes carbachol resistant to digestion by cholinesterases, as seen in the results from phase 3. After incubation with horse blood as a source of esterase, carbachol still produced a similar response in the guinea pig ileum, showing that it had not been broken down by the esterase. Carbachol Structure Acetylcholine Structure Clinical applications of carbachol include the treatment of glaucoma. Glaucoma is a condition affecting the eyes and it is caused by the build up of aqueous humour in the anterior chamber of the eye, due to the obstruction of outflow. Parasympathomimetics such as carbachol reduce pressure in the eye by contraction of the circular muscle of the iris, causing meiosis of the pupil and increasing outflow of the aqueous humour. Carbachol can be administered as eye drops to treat this condition. Carbachol can also be used to treat non obstructive urinary retention, as in postoperative urinary retention. Carbachol contracts the detrusor muscle of the bladder, decreases the bladder capacity, and increases uretal peristalsis. Indirect agonists Neostigmine is a parasympathomimetic, and was used in phase 3 of the investigation. It is a cholinesterase inhibitor and by inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine, neostigmine indirectly stimulates nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. It functions by blocking the active site of acetylcholinesterase, therefore preventing the digestion of acetylcholine. The results of the investigation showed the action of neostigmine. When acetylcholine after incubation with blood esterase was added to the organ bath, there was very little or no response because the acetylcholinesterase present in the blood had broken down the acetylcholine. However when the acetylcholine was incubated with blood and neostigmine, a maximal response was produced, showing that neostigmine had prevented the breakdown of acetylcholine. Neostigmine can be used to treat patients with myasthenia gravis; this is a condition where the patient suffers from the fatigue of voluntary muscle groups particularly muscles on the face. The edrophonium test can be used to identify myasthenia gravis. An intravenous dose of neostigmine will prevent the digestion of acetylcholine by acetyl cholinesterase and acetylcholine levels will temporarily rise. In myasthenia gravis there are too few acetylcholine receptors. So with the acetyl cholinesterase blocked, acetylcholine can bind to the few receptors and trigger a muscular contraction. If the condition affects the patientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s eyes, the weakness or fatigue of the muscles in the face will temporarily be relieved and the patient will be able to open their eyes normally. Autacoids Autacoids have diverse physiological and pharmacological activities. They are grouped together in large part because they participate, at least in some settings, in physiological or pathophysiological responses to injury [1]. Autacoids are local hormones that act near the site of synthesis; they have a short acting duration. Histamine is an example of an autacoid, its actions on bronchial smooth muscle and blood vessels account for some of the symptoms of an allergic response. Histamine is generated in mast cells and white blood cells called basophils. Histamine is released from these cells in an immunological response, and can cause inflammation. Histamine has few clinical uses but can be used in diagnostic testing. There are more clinical applications for antihistamines, which are used to treat allergies. Chlorphenamine is an example of an antihistamine, and was one of the drugs used in the investigation. Results from the experiment show competitive antagonism when chlorphenamine is added to the organ bath with histamine, as the ED50 concentration increases. Antagonists The two antagonists used in the investigation were atropine and chlorphenamine. Atropine is a muscarinic receptor antagonist, as shown by its effects on acetylcholine and carbachol, which were observed during the investigation. Atropine can be used therapeutically to inhibit the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. One example is its ophthalmic use. It can be used as a mydriatic to dilate the pupils; this is sometimes done to allow examination of the retina. It is also used to reduce secretion in the upper and lower respiratory tract. This is done for the symptomatic relief of acute rhinitis [1]. Chlorphenamine, also used in the investigation can be used as an antihistamine for allergies, as mentioned before. Conclusion It has now been concluded that the unknown drug under investigation was Carbachol. A choline ester derivative of acetylcholine. Its pharmacological properties such as being resistant to acetylcholinesterases and other esterases, and being selective for muscarinic receptors, allow it to have clinical applications as a parasympathomimetic, unlike acetylcholine which has limited clinical applications.

Smoking and god

Smokingâ€Å" If God had wanted us to smoke, he would hold given us a separate hole for it. † These are the words that I have heard when I was immature. My male parent kept stating me these words as he experienced it himself. My male parent was a tobacco user. He started smoking when he was 18 and he kept smoking until 35 when I was born. He was smoking more than three battalions of coffin nails daily. He described himself when he was a tobacco user as a really thin adult male and his face was pale. He was like a adult male who lost his wellness. After a few old ages he suffered from diabetes. He spent about 17 old ages smoking until God had enter his life and he quit smoking. From that clip, he kept warning me and my brothers about smoke. This essay is traveling to discourse the smoke issue among teens and offers some solutions. Smoke is considered a really unsafe disease that threats every tobacco user. It contains nicotine which is the chief beginning for smoking ‘s diseases. Nicotine has three of import effects. First, it rises up the blood-pressure. Second, it increases the bosom rate. Third, it constricts blood vass. The people who smoke inhale C monoxide which decreases the sum of O which goes to the encephalon and in the bosom. Furthermore, smoking makes the tobacco users agony of shortness of breath, bosom diseases, lung diseases and other disease such as malignant neoplastic disease. â€Å" Smoke putting to deaths. If you ‘re killed, you ‘ve lost a really of import portion of your life. † Brooke Shields This was one of Brooke Shields † expressions. He was seeking to converting people non to smoke by stating them about smoking ‘s hazards. Presents, most of the tobacco users are teens. Harmonizing to the Egyptian Smoking Prevention Research Institute ( ESPRI ) , Egypt has the biggest figure of tobacco users than any other state in the Middle East. There are more than 50 % of work forces over 18 smoking and they consume more than 70 billion coffin nails yearly. Smoke is considered a really of import societal issue. Nowadays, smoking becomes available for everyone. There are immature kids, teens, grownups, work forces and adult females who smoke every twenty-four hours. The figure of tobacco users is increasing every twelvemonth. In add-on, most of those tobacco users are teens. They want to smoke for chief three grounds which they are to look mature, to experiment, and to be like their friends. First, teens think that they will go older when they smoke as they see the old people smoke. Second, they want to experiment new things because they are young persons. They ever have the ability to seek out something new, particularly when they see many people do so. Third, many teens smoke because of their friends because they think that they should make the same to be accepted in this group. Although of these of import grounds, there are other grounds for them to smoke such as personal jobs and household jobs. Most of the tobacco users when they ge t nervous or angry, they do anything. Some of them smoke believing that this coffin nail will do them experience happy. Other tobacco users have jobs with their household or work, particularly with the parents who are tobacco users. Many kids imitate their parents ‘ wonts and as they see them smoking, the start to make like them. They believe that when they do like them, they will move like them besides as a adult male or adult female. This can do them hold a batch of force per unit area and emphasis. Weight is considered another ground as there are many people who smoke to free their weight. Every state should pay more attending to those people who are addicted to smoking. These states should increase the consciousness plans and set more advertizements in the street. They besides should forestall smoke in crowded topographic points and edifice. Beside, there must be a jurisprudence that punishes the people who sell coffin nails to immature people and teens. â€Å" For thy interest, baccy, I would make anything but dice. â€Å" – Charles Lamb, This sentence is the ground for halting smoke. Smoking leads to decease and this is the chief ground. Teenss must hold an internal ability to halt quit smoke. â€Å" The best manner to halt smoke is to transport wet lucifers. † – Anonymous If one has truly wants to discontinue smoke, he will make anything to discontinue. There are many people who tell themselves that if they want to discontinue smoke, they can. But, in fact, they are non honorable with themselves. They are fallacious to themselves as they do nil to discontinue. Actually, this societal issue had truly affected me in a positive manner. When I thought in my male parent ‘s narrative, I found that if I smoke I will destruct my wellness with my ain custodies. As a consequence, I will destruct my organic structure which God had given me to salvage. In the beginning, when I was immature, my male parent told me his experiment with smoking many times but, I did n't cognize the underlying significance of this narrative until I grown up. I found that many tobacco users had encountered many diseases through their life. This narrative was the chief factor that encouraged me to maintain away from smoking. Finally, smoke is a really unsafe disease and can infect anyone who does non hold unsusceptibility. I think my male parent ‘s narrative is my unsusceptibility against smoke. Every clip he tells me his narrative, I get encouraged to halt believing about smoke. This besides promote me to avoid what my male parent has encountered and what he has suffered through his past life and even his recent life after quit smoke.Procedure MemoThis essay has been organized harmonizing to the experience that I have lived, so in what manner this experiment has affected me. Then, talk about the consequences of smoke. The theses were in the debut to allow the reader know what I will speak about.Work Cited1. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml? identifier=3003308 2. hypertext transfer protocol: //health.nytimes.com/health/guides/specialtopic/smoking-and-smokeless-tobacco/background.html

Essay on Agriculture and Food Production in the Old...

Agriculture and Food Production in the Old Kingdom Egypt Agriculture and food production are quite literally the skills that feed a civilization. Old Kingdom Egypt excelled in this area. Egypt’s high success in agriculture was due to many things, ranging from a near constant climate, to the Nile and its annual inundations causing the land to be inexhaustible, to Egypt’s vast amount of other natural resources. This paper will only give a general overview of the more popular resources yielded by agriculture and food production in Old Kingdom Egypt. The Nile is of particular importance, as it was the source of life in Egypt. Egypt’s crop fields are the product of the fertile kamat soil. Egypt’s primary concern was on cereal crops that’s†¦show more content†¦The area that was rich with these minerals was referred to as ‘kemet’. Agriculture depended on the inundation in order to be a success. Inundation governed the seasons of agriculture. There were essentially three seasons, there was inundation which begin in July with the slow rising of water levels and ran through October, going down of inundation, which started in November as the water levels were falling and lasted until February, and drought which happened in March when water levels were the lowest. Inundation also regulated the taxes in Old Kingdom Egypt. Government officials would keep watch up the level of water in order to determine the amount of applicable taxes, one of the ways to do this was through the use of Nilometers. Nilometers were a form of a well that was used to measure the height of the water. These contraptions could also be used to predict the beginning of the inundation. The Nile’s flooding did not always reach land that was being cultivated; likewise, towns and villages did not want to partake in this deluge. As a result, a form of irrigation had to be developed to control and utilize t he waters of the Nile. 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Research On Cancer And Psychology - 1610 Words

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In order to help the cancer peo ple have well treatment, focus on their method and take care of their Mental Health is also one of the important part of the treatment. In order to express well, the sources which should be including the â€Å"comorbid major depression in patients with cancer† The pain from cancer will have an impact off psychology problem. â€Å"Find out what people need to know about the most common types of cancer treatment, learn how they work and why they areShow MoreRelatedChildhood Cancer Essay1649 Words   |  7 Pagescomorbid survivors of childhood cancer with the high psychosocial risk factors, in middle adolescence at the time of initial cancer diagnosis will be more like to display PTSD symptoms than other childhood cancer survivors. For the purpose of this research, long-term is defined as three plus years after completion of the cancer treatment. 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